Livelihood vulnerability of indigenous people to climate change around the Kerinci Seblat National Park in Bengkulu, Indonesia

doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2024.100181

Abstract

Abstract:

Indigenous people around the Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP), Indonesia, have a high dependence on forest resources as their main source of livelihood. This study addressed the vulnerability of Rejang indigenous people around the KSNP to climate change. The popular livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) model was adapted by adding and modifying subcomponents suitable for the study area. Primary data were collected through household surveys in two communities: Embong and Topos. In total, 146 samples were selected for this study using stratified random sampling. The results showed that Embong was more vulnerable to climate change than Topos. Embong exhibited a higher level of vulnerability to the effects of socio-demographic profile, social network, health, and natural disasters and climate variability, whereas Topos was more vulnerable to livelihood strategy, food, and water. Furthermore, Embong was more exposed to natural disasters and climate variability than Topos, but it demonstrated higher adaptive capacity and lower sensitivity than Topos. Nevertheless, socio-demographic profile influenced adaptive capacity in both communities. Sensitivity was influenced most by health in Embong, and sensitivity was influenced most by food in Topos. Although the vulnerability levels were not high in the two communities, several subcomponents must be specifically considered. Overall, this study can help the government make informed decisions to enhance adaptive capacity of the KSNP to climate change.

Key words: Livelihood vulnerability index (LVI), Livelihood diversity index, Climate change, Adaptive capacity, Sensitivity, Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP)

Septri WIDIONO, Ekawati Sri WAHYUNI, Lala M. KOLOPAKING, Arif SATRIA. Livelihood vulnerability of indigenous people to climate change around the Kerinci Seblat National Park in Bengkulu, Indonesia[J]. Regional Sustainability, 2024, 5(4): 100181.

Figures/Tables 7

Fig. 1.

Table 1

Main components and subcomponents of the livelihood vulnerability index (LVI)."

Main component	Subcomponent	Status in LVI¹⁾		Subcomponent explanation	Questionnaire item	Source
Socio-demographic profile	(1) Dependency ratio	Modified		The ratio of people under 15 and 65 years old and above to those aged 15-64 years old.	List of household characteristics	Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesian (https://www.bps.go.id/id)
	(2) Percentage of female heads of households (%)	Same		Percentage of households where the head of household is female. If the male as head of the household leaves home more than six months per year, then the female is counted as the head of the household.	Idem	Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Percentage of households where the head of household has the highest education in junior high school (%)	Modified		-	Idem	Presidential Instruction Number 1 of 1994 (https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/292993/inpres-no-1-tahun-1994)
	(4) Ratio of non-employed household members	New		Ratio of non-working household members to working household members.	Idem	Jamshidi et al. (2019)
	(5) Percentage of households with orphans (%)	Same		Percentage of households with at least one orphan living in their home. An orphan is a child under 18 years old who has lost one or both parents.	Are any children under 18 years old from other families living in his/her home because one or both parents have died?	Law Number 23 of 2002 (https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/44473/uu-no-23-tahun-2002)
Livelihood strategy	(1) Percentage of households with family members working in different communities (%)	Same		Percentage of households that report at least one family member working outside the community for their primary work activity.	Are there any household members working outside the area?	Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Ratio of rice yields sold to those consumed alone	New		Comparison of rice crops sold with those consumed by themselves. Calculated only on households that have rice farming.	Calculated from the list of rice farm production	Minot et al. (2006)
	(3) Percentage of households that depend solely on agriculture as a source of income (%)	Modified		Determined based on the household typology using 75.000% criteria of households that depend solely on agriculture as a source of income. The sources of farm income consist of annual crop farming, perennial crops, fisheries, and livestock. If a household has at least 75.000% of income depending solely on agriculture, it is categorized as an agriculturally dependent household²⁾.	Complete enumeration of household net income	Ellis (2000)
	(4) Livelihood diversity index	Modified		Inversion of the livelihood diversity index (1/(livelihood diversity index +1))	Complete enumeration of household net income	Liu et al. (2020); Mao et al. (2020)
	(5) Area of agricultural land owned (hm²/household)	New	Inversion of the area of agricultural land owned (1/agricultural land+1).		Calculated from the list of land tenure		Acosta-Michlik and Espaldon (2008); Shah et al. (2013)
Social network	(1) Ratio of the average receiving to giving	Modified	Ratio of the number of types of help received by the household in the past month+1 to the number of types of help provided by the household to others in the past month+1³⁾.		Has his/her family received the following assistance from anyone else in the past month? Has his/her family given the following help to anyone else in the past month?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Ratio of the average borrowing money to lending money	Same	The ratio of households that borrowed money in the past month to households that lent money in the past month, for example, if a household borrowed money but did not lend money, the ratio=2/1 and if they lent money but borrowed nothing, the ratio=1/2.		Has his/her family borrowed money in the past month? Has his/her family ever lent money in the past month?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Social relation index	Modified	Inversion of the number of parties who have interacted with the head of household in the last six months⁴⁾.		Over the past six months, has he/she interacted with the following parties?		Adger (2003)
	(4) Digital participation index	New	Inversion of the digital participation index (1/digital participation index+1).		The list of questions/statements to measure the digital participation index is divided into four parts: motivation, material access, skills, and utilization of digital technology.		Van Dijk and van Deursen (2014); Hooghe and Oser (2015)
Health	(1) Average time taken to go to a healthcare facility (min)	Same	Average time it takes to reach the nearest health facility⁵⁾.		How long does it take to reach the nearest health facility?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Percentage of households whose family members had chronic diseases (%)	Same	Percentage of households that report at least one family member suffering from a chronic disease. Chronic diseases are defined subjectively by respondents.		Does any of his/her family members suffer from chronic illnesses?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Percentage of households where family members have not worked or attended school in the last two weeks due to illness (%)	Same	Percentage of households that report at least one family member is out of work or absent from school due to illness in the past two weeks.		In the past two weeks, has he/she or any of his/her family members been out of work or absent from school due to illness?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(4) Percentage of households that have experienced malaria, dengue, or typhus during 2020-2022 (%)	Modified	Percentage of households experienced malaria or dengue during 2020-2022.		During 2020-2022, has anyone in your family ever experienced malaria or dengue?		Hahn et al. (2009)
Food	(1) Percentage of households whose food needs depend on family farms (%)	Same	Percentage of households that get their foodstuffs mainly from their farms.		In general, where does his/her family get most of its food? His/her farm or buy food.		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Average number of months households struggling to find food (month)	Same	-		During a year, how many months is it difficult to get food?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Average crop diversity index	Same	Inversion of the number of food crops or fruits grown by households+1. For example, households that grow pumpkins, corn, beans, and cassava have an average crop diversity index: 1/(4+1)=0.20.		Mention the types of crops cultivated by households		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(4) Per capita storage of rice (kg/person)	Modified	Ratio of stored rice to the number of family members in households that cultivate rice.		Calculated from the list of rice farm production		World Food Summit (1996)
	(5) Percentage of households that do not store rice seeds (%)	Same	-		Idem		Hahn et al. (2009)
Water	(1) Percentage of households reporting water conflicts (%)	Same	Percentage of households that report having heard of water conflicts in their communities.		During this year, did he/she know of any conflicts about water use in this region?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Percentage of households utilizing natural water sources (%)	Same	Percentage of households that report a creek or river as their primary water source.		Where does he/she obtain water for his/her household needs?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Average time to water source (min)	Same	Average time it takes households to travel to their primary water source.		How long does it take to get to the water source?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(4) Percentage of households that do not have a consistent water supply (%)	Same	Percentage of households reporting that water is not available at their primary water source every day.		Is water always available?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(5) Average water storage per household (L/household)	Same	Inversion of water storage per household (1/average number of water stored per household +1).		Approximately how much water is stored at home?		Hahn et al. (2009)
Natural disasters and climate variability	(1) Average number of floods, landslides, and droughts over the past six years	Modified	Total number of flood and land slide events reported by households during 2016-2022.		How often have floods, landslides, droughts or storms occurred in the region during 2016-2022?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(2) Percentage of households that do not receive delayed natural disaster warnings (%)	Same	Percentage of households that did not receive warnings about the worst floods and landslides in the past six years.		Did he/she receive an early warning of the disaster?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(3) Percentage of households with the worst injuries or deaths due to natural disasters in the last six years (%)	Same	Percentage of households reporting injuries or deaths suffered by their family members due to the worst flood, landslide, drought, or storm in the last six years.		Did anyone in his/her family become injured or die due to the disaster?		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(4) Mean standard deviation of the average daily maximum temperature by month (°C)	Same	Standard deviation of the average daily maximum temperature per month of the last 11 a at the district level.		Climate data from Indonesian Statistic during 2012-2022 is available⁶⁾.		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(5) Mean standard deviation of the average daily minimum temperature by month (°C)	Same	Standard deviation of the average daily minimum temperature per month of the last 11 a.		Idem		Hahn et al. (2009)
	(6) Mean standard deviation of the average precipitation by month (mm)	Same	Standard deviation of the average monthly precipitation in the last 11 a.		Idem		Hahn et al. (2009)

Table 1

Table 2

LVI in Embong and Topos."

Component	Subcomponent	Original data				Subcomponent value (S_d)		Main component value (M_d)
		Minimum	Maximum	Embong	Topos	Subcomponent value (S_d)		Main component value (M_d)
		Minimum	Maximum	Embong	Topos	Embong	Topos	Embong	Topos
Socio demographic profile	Dependency ratio	0.000	2.000	0.408	0.253	0.204	0.127	0.236	0.234
	Percentage of female heads of households (%)	0.000	100.000	15.873	4.819	0.159	0.048
	Percentage of households where the head of household has the highest education in junior high school (%)	0.000	100.000	52.381	53.012	0.524	0.530
	Ratio of non-employed household members	0.000	3.000	0.785	1.283	0.262	0.428
	Percentage of households with orphans (%)	0.000	100.000	3.175	3.614	0.032	0.036
Livelihood strategy	Percentage of households with family members working in different communities (%)	0.000	100.000	11.111	9.639	0.111	0.096	0.236	0.296
	Ratio of rice yields sold to those consumed alone	0.000	21.000	1.745	0.542	0.083	0.026
	Percentage of households that depend solely on agriculture as a source of income (%)	0.000	100.000	30.159	71.084	0.302	0.711
	Livelihood diversity index	0.392	1.000	0.500	0.649	0.178	0.422
	Area of agricultural land owned (hm²/household)	0.167	1.000	0.588	0.356	0.506	0.227
Social network	Ratio of the average receiving to giving	0.333	3.000	1.426	0.978	0.410	0.242	0.467	0.441
	Ratio of the average borrowing to lending money	0.500	2.000	1.095	1.223	0.397	0.482
	Social relation index	0.100	0.500	0.298	0.271	0.495	0.426
	Digital participation index	0.503	1.000	0.785	0.807	0.567	0.612
Health	Average time taken to go to a healthcare facility (min)	1.000	15.000	3.937	5.819	0.210	0.344	0.255	0.216
	Percentage of households whose family members had chronic diseases (%)	0.000	100.000	7.937	3.614	0.079	0.036
	Percentage of households where family members have not worked or attended school in the last 2 weeks due to illness (%)	0.000	100.000	36.508	31.579	0.365	0.316
	Percentage of households exposed to malaria or dengue during 2020-2022 (%)	0.000	100.000	36.508	16.867	0.365	0.169
Food	Percentage of households whose food needs depend on family farms (%)	0.000	100.000	0.000	2.410	0.000	0.024	0.190	0.255
	Average number of months households struggling to find food (month)	0.000	8.000	0.635	3.675	0.079	0.459
	Average crop diversity index	0.100	0.500	0.298	0.256	0.496	0.390
	Per capita storage of rice (kg/person)	0.001	0.007	0.003	0.003	0.373	0.404
	Percentage of households that do not store rice seeds (%)	0.000	100.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Water	Percentage of households reporting water conflicts (%)	0.000	100.000	1.587	24.096	0.016	0.241	0.105	0.118
	Percentage of households utilizing natural water sources (%)	0.000	100.000	30.159	0.000	0.302	0.000
	Average time to water source	1.000	11.000	1.746	1.000	0.075	0.000
	Percentage of households that do not have a consistent water supply (%)	0.000	100.000	6.349	4.819	0.063	0.048
	Average water storage per household (L/household)	0.001	0.167	0.012	0.051	0.067	0.301
Natural disasters and climate variability	Average number of floods, landslides, and droughts	0.000	20.000	12.571	0.229	0.629	0.011	0.433	0.338
	Percentage of households that do not receive delayed natural disaster warnings (%)	0.000	100.000	93.651	100.000	0.937	1.000
	Percentage of households with the worst injuries or deaths due to natural disasters (%)	0.000	100.000	1.587	0.000	0.016	0.000
	Mean standard deviation of the average daily maximum temperature by month (°C)	0.379	1.230	0.712	0.712	0.392	0.392
	Mean standard deviation of the average daily minimum temperature by month (°C)	0.257	1.203	0.507	0.507	0.264	0.264
	Mean standard deviation of average precipitation by month (mm)	85.574	219.266	133.813	133.813	0.361	0.361
LVI (Embong)=0.274; LVI (Topos)=0.270

Table 2

Fig. 2.

Table 3

Fig. 3.

Table 4

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