From breadbasket to sustainability challenge: A rice-wheat system of Punjab, India

doi:10.1016/j.regsus.2026.100367

Abstract

Abstract:

This study is set against the backdrop of agricultural intensification in the Indian Punjab, which began with the Green Revolution in the late 1960s—an initiative originally launched to secure India’s food supply after independence. Therefore, this paper examined how the policy-driven gains since the 1970s have generated long-term lock-in trade-offs across interconnected Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly within the water-energy-food nexus. Drawing on crop area, crop yield, irrigation, and energy indicators (1970-2022), and groundwater extraction data (1984-2021), this study explored how groundwater irrigation, subsidized electricity, and assured procurement policies drove the transition to a rice-wheat system. While these interventions strengthened food security (SDG 2) and contributed to poverty reduction (SDG 1), they also created a water-energy-food nexus that has accelerated groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and environmental stress, undermining SDGs 6, 7, and 12. The result showed that Punjab’s agricultural trajectory is deeply shaped by public policies operating across multiple scales. These policies generated short-term productivity gains but neglected long-term ecological consequences. Therefore, Punjab offers a critical case for understanding how intensive agricultural economies experience trade-offs among SDGs. These findings emphasized the need for integrated governance that moves beyond linear policy interventions to address systemic interconnections across water, energy, and food systems. Transformative policy pathways are essential to sustain farmer livelihoods while restoring ecological balance. Punjab’s experience reflects broader global challenges in regions where early agricultural intensification not only produced rapid food gains, but also deepened ecological vulnerabilities over time. Understanding this trajectory is vital for informing transitions toward more sustainable, climate-resilient farming systems that can meet productivity needs while advancing environmental goals.

Key words: Green Revolution, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Water-energy-food nexus, Groundwater irrigation, Subsidized electricity

Anindita SARKAR. From breadbasket to sustainability challenge: A rice-wheat system of Punjab, India[J]. Regional Sustainability, 2026, 7(4): 100367.

Figures/Tables 11

Table 1

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators in India and its state (Punjab)."

SDG	Indicator	Punjab	India	Data source
SDG 1: No poverty	Total population (×10⁷ persons)	3.17	145.09	Census of India (https://www.census2011.co.in/)
	Percentage of population below the international poverty line (%)	4.75	14.96	UNSDG statistics (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/datapo rtal) and National Multidimensional Poverty Index: A Progress Review 2023 (https://www.undp.org/india/national-multidimensional-poverty-index-progress-review-2023)
	Per capita income during 2022-2023 (USD/person)	2173.0	2051.0	Ministry of Finance, Government of India (2024)
	Average monthly income per agricultural household (USD/(month•household))	318.0	121.7	Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare (2022)
	Average size of land holding (hm²/household)	3.62	1.08	Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare (2022)
	Proportion of indebtedness of farmers (%)	54.40	50.20	Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare (2022)
SDG 2: Zero hunger	Children under 5 years old who are underweight (%)	16.9	32.1	National Health Systems Resource Centre (2021)
	Children under 5 years old who are stunted (%)	25.0	35.5	National Health Systems Resource Centre (2021)
	Rice and wheat produced per unit area (3-a average) (kg/hm²)	4491.8	3052.3	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023)
	Total food grain production (×10⁶ t)	28.21	315.72	NITI Aayog (2024a)
	Agriculture value added share of the gross domestic product (GDP) (%)	19.00	16.13	UNSDG statistics (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal) and Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023)
	Agriculture share of government expenditure (%)	10.02	7.55	NITI Aayog (2024b)
SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation	Percentage of irrigated area (%)	98.78	56.96	Government of Punjab, Economic & Statistical Organization (1971-2024)
	Percentage of groundwater irrigated area (%)	71.19	60.46	Government of Punjab, Economic & Statistical Organization (1971-2024)
	Water use efficiency (m³/USD)	-	3.13	UNSDG statistics (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal) and NITI Aayog (2024b)
	Stage of groundwater extraction (%)	163.76	59.30	CGWB (2022)
SDG 7: Affordable and clean energy	Percentage of electrified village (%)	100.00	100.00	NITI Aayog (2024b)
	Number of irrigation pump sets and energized tube-wells	1,378,967	26,671,275	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023)
	Agricultural electricity consumption to the total electricity consumption in the region (%)	22.36	17.35	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023)
	Average capacity of energized pump set (kW)	7.55	5.66	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023) (http://investpunjab.gov.in)
	Average consumption per energized pump set (kW•h)	9117	8565	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab (1971-2023)
SDG12: Responsible consumption and production	Percentage of over-exploited blocks/ mandals/taluka (%)	76.47	11.23	CGWB (2022)
SDG12: Responsible consumption and production	Percentage of the use of nitrogenous fertilizer out of the total nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (%)	79.10	65.24	NITI Aayog (2024b)

Table 1

Table 2

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

References 88

[1]	Afzal M., Liu T., Bao A.M., et al., 2024. Groundwater hydrodynamics and supply sustainability in Punjab, Pakistan: A geological statistical approach using the GAMEAS algorithm based on data from 1105 boreholes. China Geology. 9(1), 44-59.
[2]	Aryal J.P., Rahut D.B., Sapkota T.B., et al., 2020. Climate change mitigation options among farmers in South Asia. Environment, Development and Sustainability. 22(4), 3267-3289. doi: 10.1007/s10668-019-00345-0
[3]	Avellán T., Ardakanian R., Perret S.R., et al., 2018. Considering resources beyond water: irrigation and drainage management in the context of the water-energy-food nexus. Irrigation and Drainage. 67(1), 12-21. doi: 10.1002/ird.v67.1
[4]	Beck T., 1995. The green revolution and poverty in India: A case study of West Bengal. Applied Geography. 15(2), 161-181. doi: 10.1016/0143-6228(94)00002-8
[5]	Boas I., Biermann F., Kanie N., 2016. Cross-sectoral strategies in global sustainability governance: towards a nexus approach. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 16, 449-464.
[6]	Burke, J.J., 2002. Groundwater for irrigation:productivity gains and the need to manage hydro-environmental risk. In: Balkema A.A., Llamas, M.R., Custodio, E., (eds.). Intensive Use of Groundwater:Challenges and Opportunities. Rotterdam: Springer, 59-92.
[7]	Caron P., Ferrero y de Loma-Osorio G., Nabarro D., et al., 2018. Food systems for sustainable development: proposals for a profound four-part transformation. Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 38, 41, doi: 10.1007/s13593-018-0519-1. pmid: 30956691
[8]	CGWB (Central Ground Water Board), 2022. Dynamic Ground Water Resources Assessment of India, 2022. New Delhi: Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Government of India.
[9]	Chand R., 1999. Emerging crisis in Punjab agriculture: Severity and options for future. Economic and Political Weekly. 34(13), A2-A10.
[10]	Concern Worldwide, 2024. Global Hunger Index: How Gender Justice Can Advance Climate Resilience and Zero Hunger. [2025-06-15]. https://www.globalhungerindex.org/download/2024-download.html.
[11]	Conijn J.G., Bindraban P.S., Schröder J.J., et al., 2018. Can our global food system meet food demand within planetary boundaries? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 251, 244-256.
[12]	Dhawan B.D., 1982. Development of Tubewell Irrigation in India. New Delhi: Agricole Publishing Academy.
[13]	Dhawan B.D., 1988. Irrigation in India’s Agricultural Development: Productivity, Stability, Equity. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
[14]	Dhawan B.D., 1990. Studies in Minor Irrigation: With Special Reference to Groundwater. New Delhi: Commonwealth Publications.
[15]	Directorate of Statistics, Government of Punjab, 1971-2023. Statistical Abstract of Punjab. Economic Adviser to Government Punjab Government of Punjab, Chandigarh. Chandigarh: Government of Punjab.
[16]	Dutta S., Dhillon S.S., 2020. Structural transformation of Punjab agriculture and its environmental implications. Indian Journal of Economics and Development. 16(4), 533-546.
[17]	Estudillo J.P., Sawada Y., Otsuka K., 2006. The Green Revolution, development of labor markets, and poverty reduction in the rural Philippines, 1985-2004. Agricultural Economics. 35(S3), 399-407. doi: 10.1111/agec.2006.35.issue-s3
[18]	Gerten D., Heck V., Jägermeyr J., et al., 2020. Feeding ten billion people is possible within four terrestrial planetary boundaries. Nature Sustainability. 3(3), 200-208. doi: 10.1038/s41893-019-0465-1
[19]	Government of Punjab, Economic & Statistical Organization, 1971-2024. Statistical Abstract of Punjab. Chandigarh: Government of Punjab.
[20]	Grafton R.Q., Williams J., Perry C.J., et al., 2018. The paradox of irrigation efficiency. Science. 361(6404), 748-750. doi: 10.1126/science.aat9314 pmid: 30139857
[21]	Griggs D., Smith M.S., Rockström J., et al., 2014. An integrated framework for sustainable development goals. Ecology and Society. 19(4), 49, doi: 10.5751/es-07082-190449.
[22]	Gulati A., Fan S., 2008. The Dragon and the Elephant:Agricultural and Rural Reforms in China and India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 576.
[23]	Gulati, A., Roy R., Hussain S., 2021. Performance of agriculture in Punjab. In: Gulati A., Roy R., Saini S., (eds.). Revitalizing Indian Agriculture and Boosting Farmer Incomes, India Studies in Business and Economics. Singapore: Springer, 77-112.
[24]	Gupta D., 2023. Free power, irrigation, and groundwater depletion: Impact of farm electricity policy of Punjab, India. Agricultural Economics. 54(4), 515-541. doi: 10.1111/agec.v54.4
[25]	Gupta J., Vegelin C., 2016. Sustainable development goals and inclusive development. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics. 16, 433-448.
[26]	Hazell P.B., 2010. Asia’s Green Revolution: Past Achievements and Future Challenges. Rice in the Global Economy: Strategic Research and Policy Issues for Food Security. Washington, DC.: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFRI).
[27]	Headey D., 2011. Rethinking the global food crisis: the role of trade shocks. Food Policy. 36(2), 136-146. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.10.003
[28]	Hossain A., 1992. Green revolution, income distribution and rural poverty-the case of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Economics. 15(1), 1-31.
[29]	Humphreys E., Kukal S.S., Christen E., et al., 2010. Halting the groundwater decline in north-west India—which crop technologies will be winners? Advances in Agronomy. 109, 155-217.
[30]	Johl S.S., 1996. Future of agriculture in Punjab: Some policy issues. Journal of Agriculture Development and Policy. 7(1), 1-21.
[31]	Johl S.S., 2002. Agricultural Production Pattern Adjustment Programme in Punjab for Productivity and Growth Expert Committee Report. Punjab: Government of Punjab.
[32]	John D.A., Babu G.R., 2021. Lessons from the aftermaths of green revolution on food system and health. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 5, 644559, doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.644559.
[33]	Kaul J.L., Sekhon S., 1991. Flexibility and reliability of irrigation systems and their effect on farming - A case of Punjab. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 46(4), 587-592.
[34]	Kumar M.D., Bassi N., Verma M.S., 2022. Direct delivery of electricity subsidy to farmers in Punjab: will it help conserve groundwater? International Journal of Water Resources Development. 38(2), 306-321. doi: 10.1080/07900627.2021.1899900
[35]	Lal, R., 2010. Soil degradation and food security in South Asia. In: Lal R.,Sivakumar, M.V.K., Faiz, S.M.A., et al., (eds.). Climate Change and Food Security in South Asia. Dordrecht: Springer, 137-152.
[36]	López-Gunn E., Llamas. M.R., 2008. Re-thinking water scarcity: can science and technology solve the global water crisis? Natural Resource Forum. 32(3), 228-238. doi: 10.1111/narf.2008.32.issue-3
[37]	Mbow, C., Rosenzweig C.E., Barioni L.G., 2019. Food security-special report:special report on climate change and land. In: Shukla J., Skea, E., Calvo Buendia, V., et al., (eds.). Food Security-Supplementary Material. IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Geneva: IPCC.
[38]	Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare, 2022. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022. [2025-06-15]. https://desagri.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Agricultural-Statistics-at-a-Glance-2022.pdf.
[39]	Ministry of Finance, Government of India, 2024. Economic Survey 2024-25. [2025-06-14]. https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/doc/echapter.pdf.
[40]	Mirabi M., Javan K., Darestani M., et al., 2025. Integrating circular economy and life cycle assessment in virtual water management: a case study of food consumption across economic classes in Iran. Sustainability. 17(6), 2743, doi: 10.3390/su17062743.
[41]	Mirzaei A., Saghafian B., Mirchi A., et al., 2019. The groundwater-energy-food nexus in Iran’s agricultural sector: implications for water security. Water. 11(9), 1835, doi: 10.3390/w11091835.
[42]	Mitra A., Balasubramanya S., Brouwer R., 2023. Can cash incentives modify groundwater pumping behaviors? Evidence from an experiment in Punjab. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 105(3), 861-887. doi: 10.1111/ajae.v105.3
[43]	Moench M., Burke J.J., Moench Y., 2003. Rethinking the Approach to Groundwater and Food Security (No. 24). [2025-06-11]. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9563db5e-398b-4ee1-8d59-42a19bf2784d/content/y4495e00.htm.
[44]	Mukherji A., 2016. Evolution of irrigation sector. Economic and Political Weekly. 51(52), 44-47.
[45]	Nasir J., Ashfaq M., Baig I.A., et al., 2021. Socioeconomic impact assessment of water resources conservation and management to protect groundwater in Punjab, Pakistan. Water. 13(19), 2672, doi: 10.3390/w13192672.
[46]	National Health Systems Resource Centre, 2021. Health Dossier 2021: Reflections on Key Health Indicators-Punjab. New Delhi: National Health Systems Resource Centre, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India.
[47]	Nazli S., Liu J.H., Wang H.B., et al., 2024. Water resources in Pakistan: a comprehensive overview and management challenges. Journal of Water and Climate Change. 15(10), 4919-4935. doi: 10.2166/wcc.2024.415
[48]	Nelson G., Bogard J., Lividini K., et al., 2018. Income growth and climate change effects on global nutrition security to mid-century. Nature Sustainability. 1(12), 773-781. doi: 10.1038/s41893-018-0192-z
[49]	NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India), 2024a. SDG India Index 2023-24. New Delhi: Government of India.
[50]	NITI Aayog, 2024b. Working Group Report on Crop Husbandry, Agricultural Inputs, Demand & Supply. New Delhi: Government of India.
[51]	Pal Sharma A., 2013. Farmer Bodies Oppose Meters On New Pump Set Connections. [2025-06-11]. https://newspaperspk.com/indian/times-of-india.html.
[52]	Pandey, R., 2016. Groundwater irrigation in Punjab:Some issues and a way forward. In: SinghL., Singh N., (eds.). Economic Transformation of a Developing Economy. India Studies in Business and Economics. Singapore: Springer, 97-117.
[53]	Patnaik, U., 2014. Some economic and political consequences of the Green Revolution in India. In: Crow B., (ed.). The Food Question (1^st edition). London: Routledge, 80-90.
[54]	Pingali P., Plavšić M., 2022. Hunger and environmental goals for Asia: Synergies and trade-offs among the SDGs. Environmental Challenges. 7, 100491, doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2022.100491.
[55]	Potapov P., Turubanova S., Hansen M.C., et al., 2022. Global maps of cropland extent and change show accelerated cropland expansion in the twenty-first century. Nature Food. 3(1), 19-28. doi: 10.1038/s43016-021-00429-z pmid: 37118483
[56]	Pradhan P., Costa L., Rybski D., et al., 2017. A systematic study of sustainable development goal (SDG) interactions. Earth’s Future. 5(11), 1169-1179. doi: 10.1002/eft2.2017.5.issue-11
[57]	Praharaj S., Lal B., Gouda H.S., et al., 2025. Conservation agriculture for sustainable food system: Current insights and emerging perspectives. Regional Sustainability. 6(5), 100264, doi: 10.1016/j.regsus.2025.100264.
[58]	Pretty J., Benton T.G., Bharucha Z.P., et al., 2018. Global assessment of agricultural system redesign for sustainable intensification. Nature Sustainability. 1(8), 441-446. doi: 10.1038/s41893-018-0114-0
[59]	PSERC (Punjab State Electricity Regulatory Commission), 2023. Tariff Order for FY 2023-24. Punjab State Power Corporation Limited (PSPCL), Chandigarh. [2025-06-07]. https://pspcl.in/pdfs/currenttariff/sesalesto2023052610211318601062023.pdf.
[60]	Pujara M.K., Shahid A., 2016. Crop diversification: Challenges of switching crops in Punjab. Indian Journal of Economics and Development. 12(1a), 579-582.
[61]	Punjab State Power Corporation Limited, 2024. Tariff Order for FY 2024-25. Punjab State Electricity Regulatory Commission (PSERC), Chandigarh. [2025-06-07]. https://www.eqmagpro.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/PSPCL-TO-2024-25_compressed.pdf.
[62]	Rangi P.S., Sidhu M.S., 2004. New farm technology and changing structure of agricultural labour employment in Punjab. Man and Development. 26(4), 61-80.
[63]	Razzaq A., Liu H., Xiao M., et al., 2023. Analyzing past and future trends in Pakistan’s groundwater irrigation development: Implications for environmental sustainability and food security. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30(12), 35413-35429. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-24736-5
[64]	Rodriguez-Diaz J.A., Perez-Urrestarazu L., Camacho-Poyato E., et al., 2011. The paradox of irrigation scheme modernization: more efficient water use linked to higher energy demand. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research. 9(4), 1000-1008. doi: 10.5424/sjar/20110904-492-10
[65]	Sarkar A., Sen S., Kumar A., 2008. Rice-wheat cropping cycle in Punjab: a comparative analysis of sustainability status in different irrigation systems. Environment, Development and Sustainability. 11(4), 751-763. doi: 10.1007/s10668-008-9141-8
[66]	Sarkar A., Das A., 2014. Groundwater irrigation-electricity-crop diversification nexus in Punjab: Trends, turning points and policy initiatives. Economic and Political Weekly. 49(52), 64-73.
[67]	Sarkar A., 2016. Structural Changes in Irrigation Systems and Accessibility of Groundwater in Punjab. New Delhi: Manak Publications Private Limited.
[68]	Sarkar A., 2020. Groundwater irrigation and farm power policies in Punjab and West Bengal: Challenges and opportunities. Energy Policy. 140, 111437, doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111437.
[69]	Shah T., Roy A.D., Qureshi A.S., et al., 2003. Sustaining Asia’s groundwater boom: an overview of issues and evidence. Natural Resources Forum. 27(2), 130-141. doi: 10.1111/narf.2003.27.issue-2
[70]	Shah, T., 2007. The groundwater economy of South Asia:an assessment of size, significance and socio-ecological impacts. In: Giordano M., Villholth, K.G., (eds.). The Agricultural Groundwater Revolution:Opportunities and Threats to Development. Wallingford: CAB International, 7-36.
[71]	Shah, T., Scott C., Berkoff J., et al., 2007a. The energy-irrigation nexus in South Asia:Groundwater conservation and power sector viability. In: Molle F., Berkoff Wallingford, J., (eds.). Irrigation Water Pricing:The Gap Between Theory and Practice. Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 208-232.
[72]	Siddhu H.S., 2002. Crisis in agrarian economy in Punjab: Some urgent steps. Economic and Political Weekly. 37(30), 3132-3138.
[73]	Sidhu D.S., Chand R., Kaul J.K., 1984. An economic analysis of various sources of irrigation in Punjab. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 39(3), 506-511.
[74]	Sidhu R.S., Vatta K., Dhaliwal H.S., 2010. Conservation agriculture in Punjab: economic implications of technologies and practices. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 65(3), 1-15.
[75]	Siebert S., Döll P., 2010. Quantifying blue and green virtual water contents in global crop production as well as potential production losses without irrigation. Journal of Hydrology. 384, 198-217.
[76]	Singh B., 1992. Groundwater resource and agricultural development strategy: Punjab experience. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 47(1), 105-113.
[77]	Singh D., Kaur P., 2020. Resource conservation technologies in Punjab: Status and problems. Indian Journal of Economics and Development. 16(2), 281-287.
[78]	Singh S., 2000. Crisis in Punjab Agriculture. Economic and Political Weekly. 35(23), 1889-1892.
[79]	Tripathi A., Mishra A.K., Verma G., 2016. Impact of preservation of subsoil water act on groundwater depletion: the case of Punjab, India. Environmental Management. 58(1), 48-59. doi: 10.1007/s00267-016-0693-3 pmid: 27015967
[80]	Tripathi A.R., Prasad A., 2009. Agricultural development in India since independence: A study on progress, performance and determinants. Journal of Emerging Knowledge on Emerging Markets. 1(1), 63-92.
[81]	United Nations, 2024. The Sustainable Development Goals Report, 2024. [2025-06-15]. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2024.pdf
[82]	Vahedi R., Ledari M.B., Fani M., 2025. Advancing circular economy in the water-energy-food nexus: A framework for sustainable resource use. Journal of Environmental Management. 376, 124324, doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124324.
[83]	Vaidyanathan A., 1999. Water Resource Management:Institutions and Irrigation Development in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
[84]	Vatta, K., 2019. Sustainability of groundwater use in Punjab agriculture:issues and options. In: Peshin R., Dhawan A., (eds.). Natural Resource Management:Ecological Perspectives. Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection. Cham: Springer, 19-30.
[85]	Vora N., Shah A., Bilec M.M., et al., 2017. Food-energy-water-nexus: quantifying embodied energy and GHG emissions from irrigation through virtual water transfers in food trade. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering. 5(3), 2119-2128. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b02122
[86]	Weaver J.C., 1954. Crop-combination regions in the Middle West. Geographical Review. 44(2), 175-200. doi: 10.2307/212355
[87]	Wichelns D., Oster J.D., 2006. Sustainable irrigation is necessary and achievable, but direct costs and environmental impacts can be substantial. Agricultural Water Management. 86(1-2), 114-127. doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2006.07.014
[88]	World Bank Group, 2021. Food Finance Architecture: Financing a Healthy, Equitable and Sustainable Food System. [2025-07-13]. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/879401632342154766/Food-Finance-Architecture-Financing-a-Healthy-Equitable-and-Sustainable-Food-System.

District	1970	1980	1990	2000	2010	2021
Gurdaspur	W, R, M, Su, S, Be, Rp, C, Bj, and L	W and R	W and R	W, R, and Su	W and R	W and R
Amritsar	W, R, M, Rp, C, Su, Bj, S, Be, and L	W and R	W and R	W and R	W and R	W and R
Kapurthala	W, R, M, and Gr	W and R	W and R	W and R	R and W	R and W
Jalandhar	W, M, R, Gr, Su, C, Rp, Be, S, and L	W, R, and M	W and R	W and R	W and R	W and R
Hoshiarpur	W, M, and R	W, M, T, and R	W, M, and R	W, M, R, and Su	W, R, and M	W, R, and M
Rupnagar	W, M, Su, Gr, R, Rp, C, S, B, and So	W, M, R, Su, G, T, Gr, Ma, B, and C	W, R, M, Su, Mo, C, A, B, and RP	W, R, and M	R and M	W and R
Ludhiana	W, M, Gr, C, R, Be, Su, Rp, and Bj	W, R, M, Gr, C, Su, B, Mo, P, and G	W and R	W and R	W and R	R and W
Ferozpur	W, C, R, Rp, Bj, M, Be, Su, So, and Gr	W, R, C, G, R, B, M, Bj, Mo, and Mas	W, R, and C	W, R, and C	W and R	W and R
Faridkot	-	W, C, R, G, R, B, Bj, M, Mo, and Su	W, C, and R	W, R, and C	W and R	W and R
Bhatinda	W, C, Bj, Rp, M, Su, Be, R, Gr, and So	W, C, and G	W and C	C and R	W, C, and R	W and R
Sangrur	C, M, S, Rp, W, Be, Gr, L, Bj, and Cs	W, C, R, M, G, Bj, Gr, and B	W and R	W and R	W and R	R and W
Patiala	C, W, M, S, Be, Gr, Rp, L, R, and Sa	W and R	W and R	W and R	R and W	R and W