Would resettlement be better? Understanding how poverty alleviation resettlement influences the well-being of poverty alleviation migrants in China
Received date: 2024-11-18
Accepted date: 2025-05-30
Online published: 2025-07-08
Poverty remains one of the most pressing global challenges of this era, affecting millions of people across both developing and developed countries. The poverty alleviation resettlement (PAR) is a policy with Chinese characteristics for eradicating poverty. By integrating the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach, this study developed a theoretical framework to analyze the factors influencing the well-being of poverty alleviation migrants (PAMs). A telephone survey conducted between July and August 2022 in Hubei Province, Guizhou Province, Shaanxi Province, and Chongqing Municipality of China yielded 259 valid questionnaires. Using the partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), this study revealed that financial accessibility, health level, living conditions, and social networks significantly enhanced the well-being of PAMs, with living conditions having the strongest impact on the well-being of PAMs. Furthermore, the factors affecting well-being varied across age groups. Social networks played a more significant role in the elderly group, whereas health level had a greater impact on the young and middle-aged group. These findings deepen the understanding of the PAR and its effects on the well-being of PAMs, offering valuable insights for policy-makers and practitioners to refine poverty alleviation strategies and enhance social welfare.
LIU Bingsheng , YIN Yimeng , MA Li . Would resettlement be better? Understanding how poverty alleviation resettlement influences the well-being of poverty alleviation migrants in China[J]. Regional Sustainability, 2025 , 6(3) : 100228 . DOI: 10.1016/j.regsus.2025.100228
| [1] | Aminzadeh, K., Denny, S., Utter, J., et al., 2013. Neighbourhood social capital and adolescent self-reported wellbeing in New Zealand: A multilevel analysis. Soc. Sci. Med. 8, 13-21. |
| [2] | Berdes, C., Zych, A.A., 2000. Subjective quality of life of Polish, Polish-immigrant, and Polish-American elderly. Int. J. Aging Human Dev. 50(4), 385-395. |
| [3] | Calvo, R., Cheung, F., 2018. Does money buy immigrant happiness? J. Happiness Stud. 19, 1657-1672. |
| [4] | Cernea, M., 2003. For a new economics of resettlement: A sociological critique of the compensation principle. Int. Soc. Sci. J. 55, 37-45. |
| [5] | Chang, E.Y., Zhang, M., 2022. Mobility studies and transport geography in the West: Progress, implications and prospects. Progress in Geography. 41(8), 1516-1529 (in Chinese). |
| [6] | Chen, J., Chen, S., Landry, P.F., et al., 2019. Challenges and opportunities for reducing poverty in China through relocation policies: Evidence from the field. World Dev. 122, 232-248. |
| [7] | Chin, W.W., Dibbern, J., 2009. An introduction to a permutation based procedure for Multi-Group PLS analysis: Results of tests of differences on simulated data and a cross cultural analysis of the sourcing of information system services between Germany and the USA. In: Esposito, V.V., Chin, W., Henseler, J., (eds.). Handbook of Partial Least Squares. Heidelberg: Springer, 171-193. |
| [8] | Clark, A., Frijters, P., Shields, M.A., 2007. Relative income, happiness and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. American Economic Association. 46(1), 95-144. |
| [9] | Cummins, R.A., Eckersley, R., Pallant, J., et al., 2003. Developing a national index of subjective wellbeing: The Australian Unity Wellbeing Index. Soc. Indic. Res. 64(2), 159-190. |
| [10] | Dabaieh, M., Alwall, J., 2018. Building now and building back. Refugees at the Centre of an occupant driven design and construction process. Sust. Cities Soc. 37, 619-627. |
| [11] | Dai, M., He, S., 2024. Social mix and subjective wellbeing in Chinese urban neighborhoods: Exploring the domino effects of social capital through multilevel serial mediation analysis. Habitat Int. 143, 102968, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2023.102968. |
| [12] | De, P.K., Thamarapani, D., 2022. Impacts of negative shocks on wellbeing and aspirations—evidence from an earthquake. World Dev. 154, 105876, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105876. |
| [13] | Deng, Q.Q., Li, E., Zhang, P.Y., 2020. Livelihood sustainability and dynamic mechanisms of rural households out of poverty: An empirical analysis of Hua County, Henan Province, China. Habitat Int. 99, 102160, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2020.102160. |
| [14] | Diener, E., Suh, E.M., Lucas, R.E., et al., 1999. Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychol. Bull. 125(2), 276-302. |
| [15] | Diener, E., Seligman, M.E.P., 2004. Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being. Psychol. Sci. Public Interest. 5(1), 1-31. |
| [16] | Eckersley, R., 2008. Population measures of subjective wellbeing: How useful are they? Soc. Indic. Res. 94, 1-12. |
| [17] | Edwards, J.R., Bagozzi, R.P., 2000. On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures. Psychol. Methods. 5(2), 155-174. |
| [18] | Florida, R., Mellander, C., Peter, J., et al., 2013. The happiness of cities. Reg. Stud. 47(4), 613-627. |
| [19] | Forgeard, M.J.C., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M.L., et al., 2011. Doing the right thing: Measuring well-being for public policy. International Journal of Wellbeing. 1(1), 79-106. |
| [20] | Fornell, C., Larcker, D.F., 1981. Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. J. Mark. Res. 18(1), 39-50. |
| [21] | Ge, T., Wu, T., 2020. Search, migration, and social connections: Solving the migration puzzle to Beijing. China Econ. Rev. 62, 101515, doi: 10.1016/j.chieco.2020.101515. |
| [22] | Ghazali, E.M., Mutum, D.S., Pua, M.H.J., et al., 2020. Status-quo satisfaction and smartwatch adoption: A multi-group analysis. Ind. Manage. Data Syst. 120(12), 2319-2347. |
| [23] | Gilbert, A., Colley, K., Roberts, D., 2016. Are rural residents happier? A quantitative analysis of subjective wellbeing in Scotland. J. Rural Stud. 44, 37-45. |
| [24] | Guo, Y.Z., Zhou, Y., Liu, Y.S., 2019. Targeted poverty alleviation and its practices in rural China: A case study of Fuping County, Hebei Province. J. Rural Stud. 93, 430-440. |
| [25] | Hair Jr, J.F., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., 2011. PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. J. Market. Theory Pract. 19(2), 139-152. |
| [26] | Hair Jr, J.F., Sarstedt, M., Hopkins, L., et al., 2014. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Eur. Bus. Rev. 26(2), 106-121. |
| [27] | Hair Jr, J.F., Risher, J.J., Sarstedt, M., et al., 2019. When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. Eur. Bus. Rev. 31(1), 2-24. |
| [28] | Haller, M., Hadler, M., 2006. How social relations and structures can produce happiness and unhappiness: An international comparative analysis. Soc. Indic. Res. 75(2), 169-216. |
| [29] | Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M., Sinkovics, R.R., 2009. The use of partial least squares path modeling in international marketing. In: Sinkovics, R.R., Ghauri, P.N., (eds.). New Challenges to International Marketin. Leeds: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 277-319. |
| [30] | Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., 2015a. A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 43(1), 115-135. |
| [31] | Henseler, J., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., 2015b. Testing measurement invariance of composites using partial least squares. Social Science Electronic Publishing. 49(3), 41-46. |
| [32] | Household Survey Office of the National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2020. China Rural Poverty Monitoring Report. Beijing: China Statistics Press (in Chinese). |
| [33] | Huang, Z.H., Du, X.J., 2015. Assessment and determinants of residential satisfaction with public housing in Hangzhou, China. Habitat Int. 47, 218-230. |
| [34] | Huang, Z.H., 2020. Strategic orientation and five key points of “Relocation” poverty alleviation strategy in the new stage. Academic Monthly. 52(9), 48-53 (in Chinese). |
| [35] | Jayawickreme, E., Forgeard, M.J.C., Seligman, M.E.P., 2012. The engine of well-being. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 16(4), 327-342. |
| [36] | Jibeen, T., Khalid, R., 2010. Predictors of psychological well-being of Pakistani immigrants in Toronto, Canada. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 34(5), 452-464. |
| [37] | John, H., Richard, L., Jeffrey, S., 2018. World Happiness Report 2013. [2024-09-11]. https://idr.uin-antasari.ac.id/352/. |
| [38] | Jowell, R., Eva, G., 2009. Happiness is not enough: Cognitive judgements as indicators of national wellbeing. Soc. Indic. Res. 91, 317-328. |
| [39] | Kahneman, D., Diener, E., Schwarz, N., 1999. Well-being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. [2024-09-10].http://www.mendeley.com/research/objective-happiness-d-kahneman-e-diener-n-schwarz-eds-wellbeing-foundations-hedonic-psychology/. |
| [40] | Kahneman, D., Deaton, A., 2010. High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107(38), 16489-16493. |
| [41] | Keyes, C.L.M., 1998. Social well-being. Soc. Psychol. Q. 61(2), 121-140. |
| [42] | Larson, J.S., 1993. The measurement of social well-being. Soc. Indic. Res. 28(3), 285-296. |
| [43] | Lauren, E.W, Delphine, P., Carlene, F., 2023. ‘Relocating’ adolescents from risk beyond the home: What do we learn when we ask about safety? Br. J. Soc. Work. 53(5), 2958-2978. |
| [44] | Lawson, L., Kearns, A., Leishman, C., et al., 2019. Changing contexts, critical moments and transitions: Interim outcomes for children and young people living through involuntary relocation. Hous. Stud. 34(1), 1-30. |
| [45] | Leng, G.X., Feng, X.L., Qiu, H.G., 2021. Income effects of poverty alleviation relocation program on rural farmers in China. J. Integr. Agric. 20(4), 891-904. |
| [46] | Li, C., Zheng, H., Li, S.Z., et al., 2015. Impacts of conservation and human development policy across stakeholders and scales. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 112(24), 7396, doi: 10.1073/pnas.1406486112. |
| [47] | Li, C., Guo, M.M., Li, S.Z., et al., 2020. The impact of the anti-poverty relocation and settlement program on rural households’ well-being and ecosystem dependence: Evidence from Western China. Soc. Nat. Resour. 34(1), 40-59. |
| [48] | Li, J.Y., Raine, J.W., 2014. The time trend of life satisfaction in China. Soc. Indic. Res. 116(2), 409-427. |
| [49] | Liu, M.Y., Feng, X.L., Zhao, Y.F., et al., 2023. Impact of poverty alleviation through relocation: From the perspectives of income and multidimensional poverty. J. Rural Stud. 99, 35-44. |
| [50] | Liu, W., Xu, J., Li, J., 2018. The influence of poverty alleviation resettlement on rural household livelihood vulnerability in the Western Mountainous areas, China. Sustainability. 10, 1-15. |
| [51] | Liu, Y.Q., Zhang, F.Z., Wu, F.L., et al., 2017. The subjective wellbeing of migrants in Guangzhou, China: The impacts of the social and physical environment. Cities. 60, 333-342. |
| [52] | Lo, K., Xue, L.Y., Wang, M., 2016. Spatial restructuring through poverty alleviation resettlement in rural China. J. Rural Stud. 47, 496-505. |
| [53] | Lo, K., Wang, M., 2018. How voluntary is poverty alleviation resettlement in China? Habitat Int. 73, 34-42. |
| [54] | Lu, W.Z., Zhang, W., 2024. Emotional integration, governance capacity, and poverty alleviation in relocated communities: A case study of relocated migrants in China. J. Knowl. Econ. 1-28. |
| [55] | Ma, W.L., Abdulai, A., 2016. Does cooperative membership improve household welfare? Evidence from apple farmers in China. Food Policy. 58, 94-102. |
| [56] | M?h?nen, T.A., Leinonen, E., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., 2013. Met expectations and the wellbeing of diaspora immigrants: A longitudinal study. Int. J. Psychol. 48(3), 324-333. |
| [57] | Moore, G., Fardghassemi, S., Joffe, H., 2023. Wellbeing in the city: Young adults’ sense of loneliness and social connection in deprived urban neighbourhoods. Wellbeing Space Soc. 5, 100172, doi: 10.1016/j.wss.2023.100172. |
| [58] | National, Development and Reform, Commission, 2023. In 2022, the follow-up Support Work for Poverty Alleviation through Eelocation across the Country Achieved Remarkable Results. [2024-09-10]. |
| [59] | Nieboer, A.P., Cramm, J.M., 2017. Age-friendly communities matter for older people’s well-being. J. Happiness Stud. 19, 2405-2420. |
| [60] | Noh, S., Kaspar, V., 2003. Perceived discrimination and depression: Moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. Am. J. Public Health. 93(2), 232, doi: 10.2105/ajph.93.2.232. |
| [61] | Novara, C., Martos-Méndez, M.J., Gómez-Jacinto, L., et al., 2023. The influence of social support on the wellbeing of immigrants residing in Italy: Sources and functions as predictive factors for life satisfaction levels, sense of community and resilience. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 92, 101743, doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.101743. |
| [62] | O’Campo, P., Salmon, C., Burke, J., 2009. Neighbourhoods and mental well-being: What are the pathways? Health Place. 15(1), 56-68. |
| [63] | OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 2014. How’s Life in Your Region? Measuring Regional and Local Well-being for Policy Making. [2024-08-10]. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/how-s-life-in-your-region_9789264217416-en.html. |
| [64] | ONS (Office for National statistics), 2015. Measuring National Well-being-International Comparisons: 2015 Programme. [2024-08-10]. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/bulletins/measuringnationalwellbeing/2015-09-23. . |
| [65] | Pan, Z.Y., Zhang, Y., Zhou, C., et al., 2021. Effects of individual and community-level environment components on the subjective well-being of poverty alleviation migrants: The case in Guizhou, China. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 28(7), 622-631. |
| [66] | Pavot, W., Diener, E., 2009. Review of the satisfaction with life scale. In: Diener, E., (ed.). Assessing Well-Being. Social Indicators Research Series. Dordrecht: Springer, 101-117. |
| [67] | Pfeiffer, D.M.M., Ehlenz, R., Andrade, S., et al., 2020. Do neighborhood walkability, transit, and parks relate to residents’ life satisfaction?. Insights from Phoenix. J. Am. Plann. Assoc. 2, 171-187. |
| [68] | Pinquart, M., S?rensen, S., 2000. Influences of socioeconomic status, social network, and competence on subjective well-being in later life: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Aging. 15(2), 187-224. |
| [69] | Rasoolimanesh, S.M., Ringle, C.M., Jaafar, M., et al., 2017. Urban vs. rural destinations: Residents’ perceptions, community participation and support for tourism development. Tourism Manage. 60, 147-158. |
| [70] | Rogers, S., Li, J., Lo, K., et al., 2020. China’s rapidly evolving practice of poverty resettlement: Moving millions to eliminate poverty. Dev. Policy Rev. 38(5), 12435, doi: 10.1111/dpr.12435. |
| [71] | Ruggeri, K., García-Garzón, E., Maguire á., et al., 2020. Well-being is more than happiness and life satisfaction: A multidimensional analysis of 21 countries. Health Qual. Life Outcomes. 18(1), 192, doi: 10.1186/s12955-020-01423-y. |
| [72] | Sen, A., 1993. Capability and well-being. In: Nussbaum, M., Sen, A., (eds.). The Quality of Life London: Clarendon Press, 30-53. |
| [73] | Sen, A., 2000. Development as Freedom. New York: Alfred Knopf, 258. |
| [74] | Shucksmith, M., Cameron, S., Merridew, T., et al., 2009. Urban-rural differences in quality of life across the European Union. Reg. Stud. 43(10), 1275-1289. |
| [75] | Ty, P.H., Laura, B., Phuong, T.T., et al., 2023. Impoverishment persistence in hydropower dam-induced resettled communities: A sociological investigation on livelihood and food security in Vietnam. Soc. Sci. 12(4), 222, doi: 10.3390/socsci12040222. |
| [76] | Vella-Brodrick, D.A., Park, N., Peterson, C., 2009. Three ways to be happy: Pleasure, engagement, and meaning—findings from Australian and US samples. Soc. Indic. Res. 90, 65-179. |
| [77] | Wang, C., He, P., Choi, C.G., 2024. Resettlement willingness: From a village environmental perspective. PLoS ONE. 19(8), e0305476, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0305476. |
| [78] | Wang, W.L., Qian, R., Jin, Y., 2018. Impact of the ecological resettlement program on participating decision and poverty reduction in southern Shaanxi, China. Forest Policy Econ. 95, 1-9. |
| [79] | Wang, X.Y., Sangalang, P.J., 2009. Work adjustment and job satisfaction of Filipino immigrant employees in Canada. Can. J. Adm. Sci. 22(3), 243-254. |
| [80] | Wellman, B., Wortley, S., 1990. Different strokes from different folks: Community ties and social support. Am. J. Sociol. 96(3), 558-588. |
| [81] | Wu, J., Zhang, J., Yang, H., 2023. Sustainable development of farmers in minority areas after poverty alleviation relocation: Based on an improved sustainable livelihood analysis framework. Land. 12(5), 1045, doi: 10.3390/land12051045. |
| [82] | Wu, Z., Margaret, J.P., Zeng, W.H., et al., 2015. Relocation and social support among older adults in rural China. J. Gerontol. Ser. B-Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 71(6), 1108-1119. |
| [83] | Xing, Z.J., 2002. A review of researches on measures of subjective well-being. Journal of Psychological Science. 25(3), 336-338 (in Chinese). |
| [84] | Xu, S.J., Jia, Z.Y., Lv, Y.P., et al., 2023. Subjective well-being and influencing factors of ex situ poverty alleviation migrants: The case of Guizhou, China. J. Urban Plan. Dev. 149(3), 4012, doi: 10.1061/JUPDDM.UPENG-4012. |
| [85] | Yang, Y.Y., Sherbinin, A.D., Liu, Y., 2020. China’s poverty alleviation resettlement: Progress, problems and solutions. Habitat Int. 98, 102135, doi: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2020.102135. |
| [86] | Zhang, J.F., Wang, B., 2022. Rural place attachment and urban community integration of Chinese older adults in rural-to-urban relocation. Ageing Soc. 42(6), 1299-1317. |
| [87] | Zhang, L., Xie, L.Y., Zheng, X.Y., 2023. Across a few prohibitive miles: The impact of the anti-poverty relocation program in China. Journal of Development Economics. 160, 102945, doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102945. |
| [88] | Zhu, D.M., Jia, Z.Y., Zhou, Z.X., 2021. Place attachment in the ex-situ poverty alleviation relocation: Evidence from different poverty alleviation migrant communities in Guizhou Province, China. Sust. Cities Soc. 75, doi: 10.1016/j.scs.2021.103355. |
/
| 〈 |
|
〉 |
REGSUS Wechat
新公网安备 65010402001202号